Sections 5: Trends & Issues

Chapters in Section V identify trends and issues in IDT in various contexts: business & industry;
military; health care education; P-12 education; and post-secondary education. Select at least 3
of these 5 contexts and compare/contrast the IDT trends and issues.

The three contexts that I will compare/contrast are Military Education and Training, Health Care Education and P-12 Technology Integration.

Culture

I happen to have some experience with Military Training as I spent 3 years in the U.S. Navy.  The trends and issues listed in the chapter were familiar with the environment remembered 20 years ago.  The culture of the Navy was that training was very much part of the job.  Although being part of the air wing where there was a day to day business as opposed to a combat type of job where the job is mainly training, we were expected to study on procedures and take on new jobs until we were familiar enough to train the next person coming into the shop.    Procedures and Troubleshooting steps were well documented and we were rewarded for following the rules and order.

The Health Care industry has a culture similar to the Military in that education is an on the job prospect.  Naturally there is extensive training that takes place before attaining a license to practice, but the training seems to come from those within the profession.

The P-12 Technology Integration culture is mostly about educating the students by using methods that are proven.   Professionals in education are encouraged to continue personal education and will attend seminars, training sessions and online sessions which meet the CE requirements.  The students are rapidly approaching if not surpassing the teachers with computer and device literacy which presents a new challenge for teachers. It seems that the teachers are catching up to integrate technology but it has not been too long ago that newer web sites and infrastructure have come of age.   The challenge is how to evaluate the tools and technologies available to the classroom to encourage meaningful learning.

Technology

The military will need a range of technology solutions depending on the situation.  The situation might require a paper job aid or something as complex and expensive as a flight or fighting simulator.

The health care industry will likely use multimedia solutions to be able to visualize parts of the body or things that are too small for the eye to see.  Simulations, dummies and even actors are also part of the technology that might be used for this context.

The P-12 environment is mainly about the internet, software, computers and tablets and possibly devices. This context is mainly considering the typical classrooms, however other specialty classes such as technology, tv and radio media, and even choir/drama might use technology in ways it has not before.  The use of the internet to leverage the social networks and collective information is becoming more and more part of the classroom.

Costs

The costs of ID for the military context is much like you would expect with governmental oversight.  While it can be lucrative, it has it's own issues to deal with.  Many trade off decisions must be made regarding low-tech to high-tech solutions for training.   The scope of training can also be a factor, however the military tends to offset the training costs by creating train the trainer roles.

Health care costs are rising and thus causing more pressure to reduce costs.   The more complicated the "dummies" and other simulations, the more costly the training will become on the budgets.

 Then explain how they are
similar or different from the IDT trends and issues in the context in which you work

I currently work in the business sector.   Training is helpful, but not always considered a necessity.  In the IT world, if there is a new product being supported, then comprehensive training is provided normally on the front end of the process and future team members may or may not be sent offsite for training.  If they do, it will likely be off site unless enough participants are available onsite and it is cost effective.
Managers like to know exactly what will be trained and they may decide to snip certain sections to reduce the amount of money spent to a trainer to be on-site.   There is a deep desire to know exactly what will be delivered in training and if it seems that the manuals or online training can accomplish the same task, they will generally opt for the cheaper solution.  Employees are expected to read up on changes in their field and know how to find answers to problems in an informal manner.

Technology in business education is generally using the existing tools (computer/internet/etc).  In the case of attending training offsite, whatever the trainer provides will be the technology utilized.

The cost of training always relates to return on investment.  If managers cannot see how they will gain from the training dollar, it will not typically be spent.

Section 4: Human Performance Technology

Chapter 14 discusses the concept and evolution of human performance improvement. Several sections of chapter 14 present a variety of non-instructional solutions to performance problems. Identify a performance problem in your area of work and identify non-instructional solutions that may help solve the problem.

I work in a group that is split between Dallas Texas and Baguio, Philippines.  Our group is responsible for several systems and each of us are primarily responsible for one of them.   We have service requests that come to our group at all hours of the day and we are expected to work the basic requests for all of the systems.    We spent a week training each other on our respective systems and covered the basics, but recently the tickets that come in are being passed to the primary for the system and not handled by the other group.

A couple of non-instructional solutions would be for the team lead Baguio to coach his team members as tickets come in to capture the requests and to understand the problem or request stated in each ticket. Capturing the request would be the first step in Documentation as either they will find the answer in the knowledge base or they will have a suitable problem statement to seed a new document when the appropriate answer is provided by the primary system owner.

Chapter 15 presents performance support systems. Define performance support systems and explain how a performance support system might (or might not) help solve the problem you identified above.

Performance support systems are work tools provided to the performers in a just in time manner.  It can be in the form of software or systems, or it can be in the form of job aids or laminated materials.  The main idea is that it provides direction and guidance for the person to complete a task or know what steps to take to do their work.

In the above case, a performance support system will help as the requests are infrequent but critical to offer support of the customer in a timely manner.  It also has criticality for the counterparts to understand the systems and the requests that are made of the system in the event they need to take over support at a future date.

Chapter 16 explains knowledge management: the way we manage information, share that information, and use it to solve organization problems. Organizations, such as schools, accumulate a great deal information/data, which must be organized in a way that we can make sense of it in order to use for making decisions. What knowledge would help solve the problem you identified above and how would that knowledge need to be collected and managed to help facilitate problem solving?

We have documentation about our systems and we also have a ticketing system which contains actual requests in the customers own words.   Granted, the customer does not always articulate exactly what they need  but ironically, they typically ask for things very similar to each other, therefore, even their misstated request, captured, could be helpful.   I believe that a knowledge base that contains customer request statements and general informational tasks which could point to a brief procedure, or complex procedure stored on a file share or sharepoint site would be the way to solve the problem.   It could be collected as requests are reviewed and searched and if a pointer does not exist, it can be created in the workflow.   The provider of the answer can fill in the gaps of the knowledge document as part of their workflow.    It could very well be that the framed document is not needed because a different document provides the necessary information.  In that case, the problem statement could be transferred to the existing document and the new document discarded.     This method places knowledge management in the middle of the workflow and will provide an organic growth of useful information.

Chapter 17 describes types of informal learning. What informal learning experiences have you participated in at your organization? Could those informal learning experiences be shared with others? Could the knowledge gained in those settings be codified and managed? And should it be managed or should the informal experiences be replicated or broadened for others?

I work and breathe in an informal learning environment.  In fact, I once had a coworker, who was considering moving to a new job in another company, smaller company in fact, that was willing to listen to me a second time about the benefits of our environment.   The projects that are given to us along with the expectations to write them in sustainable, easy to use and manage interfaces, with technology and skills that were just above our current level are the opportunity of a lifetime.   He chose the extra money and left and ultimately lost out on a gold mine of knowledge and experiences.

We not only have the projects but we have the latitude and expectation to work with each other and share our knowledge.   We are expected to seek out solutions on the fabulous Web 2.0 and incorporate best practices in coding and usability that will work across multiple browsers.   We stumble across many web sites that are helpful and some that are not so helpful.   It is our collaboration that help us weed out the better solutions and our performance and skill continue to evolve.

Much of our knowledge is tacit.  However we could take snippets of code and write up a summarization of what we know to date such as setting up a web site for authentication or to use twitter bootstrap to make it a bit easier for our counterparts in Baguio.  It would depend on the information and the task.


Our boss currently asked our team in Baguio to seek out some .net training so they can develop a better understanding and skillset.  However I do believe that we could help replicate some of the informal training experiences for them and be available for some frequent discussions about programming and projects that we benefit from in our cubical roundtables.

Section 3: Evaluating, Implementing and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects

Chapter 10 discusses evaluation in instructional design and provides you with two evaluation models, the CIPP and Kirkpatrick models for evaluation. Search for at least two other models used for evaluation and summarize these models. Describe how you would use them to evaluate your instruction. 

Goal Free Evaluation
This model was created by Nfichael Scriven in the 70's.  The purpose of using this model is to capture intended as well as unintended outcomes of a project.  As the title indicates, the idea is not to consider the goals or objectives of the program so that all aspects of the program can be considered.  The focus will be on the effects of the program and not the goals so the ability to profile the needs of the "target population" is required and if there is positive impact on those needs, it will produce a postive evaluation.

It requires the evalutor have access to participants, data and have time to conduct the evaluation.   It is qualitative and relies on interviews in an unstructured manner.   The evalutor should have good knowledge of the subject and if they are not competent, it will be a major factor.  The evaluator also needs to be free of bias so they can interpret the data for what it is.

I can see this model being helpful to evaluate my instruction with a perspective of the overall value of the content or process.   There will be benefits that could be substantial that would go unnoticed and unappreciated if a evaluation of this type were not considered.   While I am typically a numbers type of person, a qualitative evaluation model will help tell the rest of the story that justifies the use of the instruction design or at least certain elements that could be coupled with other design that produces better "numbers"

Tyler Model
In contrast to Goal Free Evaluation, the Tyler Model is all about the objectives.  The goals need to be measurable for this method to be helpful. The main function of the evaluator is to identify a process to measure the goals and will design a way for the data to be collected.  The information is given to the client and the evaluator is no longer in the process.  The client will make their own judgments as to what the collected data tells them.

The ability to identify goals is critical and the process to collect data should be tested well.  The output is only as good as the correct goals are expressed.

I can see this model as extremely helpful to know if the instructional design is meeting the "numbers".  Perhaps there could be two evaluation models utilized to capture the quantitative and qualitative value of the design.   I probably lean more to this model as it might be easier to place measuring devices and collect data to tell the story.  However, the data could be interpreted in many different ways, and perhaps the qualitative method above would bring into focus how or why the objectives were met.

Reflect on what other questions that instructional design evaluation should address besides whether the instructional design leads to comparable amounts of learning and learner satisfaction as traditional methods. What else would be useful to know?

Cost and Time would be some factors to consider.  In many of the evaluation models, the evaluators need to be experts or unbiased, which means not necessarily connected to the current situation.   Time is money and expertise is money.  
Who will review or assess the evaluation.   Much like the Tyler Model, the interpretation is to be performed by the client.  Is there support from management or administration to give due diligence to understand the data and take necessary actions.

What have been the outcomes of similar studies or evaluations?  What elements have made them successful?

Chapter's 12 & 13 focus on project management and how to manage projects when resources are scarce. You have been assigned to develop a series of professional development sessions focusing on technology use in the classroom for teachers during a time of economic decline. How will you use Situational Leadership to facilitate this project and manage scarce resources? 

Situational Leadership is a very practical way to manage and lead projects and people. The key behavior for a situational leader is to adapt to each of their team members according to what they need.  What they need depends on their motivation and their competency.  If they are Low Competent and Low Motivation, it will require more direction and follow up as well as investigation as to what will help the team member buy into the project.  If if they have high motivation and low competency, then it is a matter of training and feedback to bring them up to speed.   On the other side of the spectrum, we have high competency and low motivation, once it is understood what it will take to bring that person back into the tent, they will be very productive members of the team.  Obviously the high motivation, high competency will be more of a monitoring interfacing role that the situational leader will use.     Not all members of the team will stay in any given quadrant and it requires a strong knowledge of people skills and assessment skills to identify what actions to take.

Understanding each team members role is also critical to the programs success.  Knowledge of the job and/or specific tasks is information that the leader needs to know.

Regarding scarcity of resources to develop a series of professional development courses, I would need to fully understand the scope and amount of resources that are available.  I would assume that the need or demand is somewhat fixed, however, one can assume that we are talking about teachers who can be picky and critical and refuse to use something that is not up to their expectations.   I would definitely try to understand what gaps or desires the teachers have and try to capture a large percentage of potential participants.

I would balance the scope, time frame and amount of work with the number of resources available.  Negotiation of the deliverables would be required so that we do not over promise and under deliver.  Once we had our goals and objectives, I would set up some clear channels of communication via meetings and mailing lists.  It would be clear where to store documents and we would establish and celebrate milestones.  

Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

Epistemology (the study of what and how we come to know) is discussed in multiple chapters in this section. Distinguish epistemology from instructional methods or theories. What are the differences between theories, methods, or models of learning and epistemologies or underlying beliefs about ways of knowing?

The various instructional methods and theories have been developed to establish a guide or system to teach students new information.  They all try to leverage the way we learn or and they are based on observable outcomes.  The methods are much like philosophical truths which seem to be bullet proof for a large section of the population.  However they all seem to fall short or fail to bring everyone under the same tent. Each method offers a glimpse into how our minds work such as Skinners behavioral method of reinforcement and feedback, or the CIP Theory of how we process, store and recall information.  The methods may not apply to everyone as our brains are complex and the correlations of practice and acquisition does not necessarily indicate an absolute perspective of how we learn.


Based on what you’ve read about positivist and relativist epistemologies, as well as behaviorist and constructivist approaches, try to more fully describe a contextualist epistemology. How might it differ from either a relativist or positivist stance, and how might social constructivism differ from either behaviorist or radical constructivist approached to learning and instruction?

The contextualist epistemology will use connections that the student can make with their culture and artifacts. Culture being their set of social rules and traditions that give their environment meaning.

This is different from the radical constructivist who believe that knowledge does not have to come from real world experiences. With contextualism, the student will use what is known and understood in their environment to make a connection or construct new knowledge.  The social constructivist will leverage a group or collaboration but the contextualist approach sees the group as part of the environment, but not solely the environment.

A postivist epistimology relies on empirical evidence and unless that evidence is in their environment, the student will have a hard time connecting with the information, particularly if they do not see a need to use it in the future.


Differing epistemic stances lead to differing approaches to learning and instruction, and ultimately to problem-solving. Explain differences in problem-solving when approached from behaviorist and constructivist perspectives. How do the approaches differ in both the nature of the problem to be solved and in facilitating the problem solving process? Finally, what effect might these differences have on learner motivation?

A constructivist approach to instruction and problem solving activities will facilitate the engagement of the student, whereas the type of engagement from a behaviorist might be more of checking for responses and guiding or directing the process of solving the problem.   I can see a behaviorist showing one (or more) ways to work a problem, but clearly indicating to the student if they are doing it right.    A constructivist will give the student more room, ask questions, and try to provide scaffolding if needed.   The term used in the book is rather than be a "sage on the stage", be a "guide on the side".  

The constructivist method will include allowing the student to choose their area to work on a particular problem and the approach they might want to take.

The motivation factor with the student could fall either way in both cases.  I imagine that to a novice, a behaviorist approach might be welcomed and appreciated to a certain extent.  However, if it does not transition to freeing the constraints of the student so they can consider different approaches then their motivation might wane.    On the other hand, if they are given too much freedom and not enough support or feedback (perhaps questions to reflect on), their motivation to continue to engage and their desire to learn could easily be stiffled.  

Section 1: Defining the Field

How do the definitions in the first chapter compare to your own definition of instructional or educational technology?  What experiences or other influences have shaped your definition? How has your definition changed from examining the definitions in the first chapter of this book?

It stands to reason that the definition of instructional technology has changed over the years.  We tend to pidgeon hole or associate types of technology labels and as new tech comes out the attached label is outgrown.   I think it also has to do with an evolution as to how to apply or use the technology to design instruction to leverage its benefits.   Technology has caused us to think differently along the way.  New paradigms are formed which allow us to advance our thinking and use of technology to make better technology.  Incidentally our understanding of better is also adjusted or modified as time and changes go forward.

I am very new to the teaching field and my idea of instructional design and technology is rooted in the experience of teacher preparation classes.   I have 20 years of working with technology and I constantly learn through the use of computers and programs so my definition of instructional design and technology is as basic as using technology such as computers, internet, games, models and simulations to provide a perspective that shape a students understanding and knowledge.

I can easily buy into the two definitions used in the textbook as it seems to include a nice structure and is open enough to include almost anything, not just technology to improve learning and performance.  In a recent class, I recall a statement that was made regarding the decision not to use technology for a specific reason is just as applicable as using technology for the sake of using it.

Next, think of a lesson or unit of instruction that you have developed. Or if you haven’t ever taught or developed instruction, think of one that you have received. How does that lesson adhere or fail to adhere to the six characteristics of instructional design? How would you redesign it to better adhere to the six characteristics.

The instruction that comes to mind is a classroom management class I took a couple of years ago.  We were assigned groups and tasked with presenting a chapter in the book to the rest of the students.  We were also assigned a particular week and it was up to us to determine how we present the information.  Most of the groups created a powerpoint with handouts and that seemed to be the expectation.  We complied with the expectation.  Comparing it to the six characteristics, I will assess if it met the target with some notes on each item.

1. Instructional design is student centered.  
   It was definitely student centered as the teacher left it to us to learn and develop the content that we would summarize and share with the class.
2. Instructional design is goal oriented.  
   We had the goal of highlighting the main points of the text and presenting the information to our classmates.
3. Instructional design focuses on meaningful performance.I think this characteristic was a little shy in our situation.  I think the bar was a little bit low because as we as presenters learned from the process, our production of the information was not the best model for presenting the information to the class.  
4. Instructional design assumes outcomes can be meas-ured in a reliable and valid way.  This was also short as it was unclear how we were being measured.  It seemed that if we got through the hour class and gave them a handout, we met the objective.  It was tough to know if we had a positive effect on our students.
5. Instructional design is empirical,iterative,and self-  correcting.  I have little knowledge or evidence that this method is fixed from semester to semester.  I did hear that the course was getting re-worked, but I am not sure if this part was modified.   Without a de-briefing and reflection of how we performed or if the students got what they needed, I find it difficult to see if this characteristic was met. 
6. Instructional design typically is a team effort.I know our presentation was a team effort in so much that we split up the sections and summarized our part. I am not sure if our task was developed as a team or by the instructor only.

I can see now that we could have met and devised a better method for teaching the class our chapter. Perhaps have them do something similar during the hour, or even flip the classroom.   A better design would be to provide some clearer objectives, provide a rubric and to emphasize using engaging methods of instruction that was discussed and encouraged in the many classes in the teacher development program.

In the 3rd chapter, Reiser distinguishes instructional media from instructional design, excluding teachers, chalkboards, and textbooks from the definition of instructional media. Why? Would you consider teachers, chalkboards, and textbooks instructional media? Is the purpose of instructional design to incorporate media into instruction?The first three chapters of your book define the IDT (Instructional Design and Technology) field and provide a history of how it has evolved over time. In your blog post for this week, reflect on the following:

I can see the logic of not including the teacher, chalkboard and textbook as instructional media based on the premise that those are primary in the instruction.   They all relate directly to the teacher who is the guide.  As the guide chooses to use other items, they are defined as instructional media.  I could easily agree with this premise, however we would have to substitute the chalkboard with the dry-erase board and the textbook with the ebook in some cases.    This might just be where the logic breaks down a bit but so long as those methods are the primary methods, the definition makes sense.   I would wonder if the tablet becomes the primary tool of the teacher if that too would be excluded years from now?

It seems the purpose of instructional design is to carefully use the appropriate media to accomplish the objectives and goals of engaging and teaching students.   To state that it is to always use media would be focusing on the wrong target.   The end might always contain some form of media because of the richness and value it has in the learning process but the goal should definitely be the learning process.  

I enjoyed reading through the ADDIE process and clearly see the value of the diagram above.  While the process appears to be cyclic, it allows for evaluation at any stage and a redirection to any part of the process as needed.   I like to evaluate and use formative assessment wherever possible to check if I am on the right track or if I need to adjust.  I love feedback and this model clearly shows how integral evaluation is to the process.